The previous chapter, in developing the concept of self-identification, considered some issues of animal self-consciousness in terms of self-location. This chapter considers animal self-consciousness directly. It returns to the Analytic Principle discussed in Chapter 1 — that self-consciousness is a phenomenon that must be expressed by use of a self-referring device with the properties of the first person — and asks whether it is consistent with primitive self-consciousness in animals. If chimps and other non-language-users exhibit self-consciousness, then the latter capacity may appear detachable from "I"-use — hence the challenge to the Analytic Principle, which rests on the assumption that self-consciousness necessarily involves linguistic expression.